http://www.hse.ru/pubs/lib/data/access/ram/ticket/36/1439810128afaa37e686e45aa34df04f76ef4d4e6d/Kavkaz%20001-336.pdf
Monday, August 17, 2015
Friday, July 31, 2015
IRAN AND THE SOUTH CAUCASUS: THE IMPACT OF THE NUCLEAR DEAL
Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan were all former parts of the Persian
Empire, in a past that is remote enough not to sound threatening any
longer. The three republics have been strongly influenced by Persian
culture and its heritage is still visible and tangible in the art,
language and architecture of the South Caucasus. This historic heritage
has been preserved regardless of the twists and turns of international
relations, and the fact that investments from and to Iran might be more
easily accessible and more open could further enhance the exchange and
the promotion of common assets. Something should be stressed here: this
is an ongoing process, the ball is already rolling. Iran might have been
an international pariah in other theaters, but it has never been left
as an outsider in the South Caucasus. It preserved its regional
relevance, and it kept developing its relations with the two plus one -
Georgia does not actually share any border with Iran - northern
neighbors.
For the three post-Soviet Republics trade exchange and diplomatic ties
with Iran were till the very recent past to be molded not only
consistently with the nature of the bilateral relation but, often on the
tightrope, with the international commitments undertaken. Now things
may go more smoothly, at least this is what can be assumed from a short
review of what happened and what is happening in the last months in
Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Necessarily singularly, one by one.
My commentary for AVIM: http://www.avim.org.tr/analiz/en/IRAN-AND-THE-SOUTH-CAUCASUS:-THE-IMPACT-OF-THE-NUCLEAR-DEAL-/4166
Monday, June 15, 2015
"Кризис института политических партий как трансграничный феномен"
In: ФЕД
ФОНД ИМ. ФРИДРИХА ЭБЕРТА В РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ/FRIEDRICH EBERT STIFTUNG
ТРАНСГРАНИЧНЫЕ ВЫЗОВЫ НАЦИОНАЛЬНОМУ ГОСУДАРСТВУ/CROSS-BORDER CHALLENGES TO THE NATION-STATE
http://www.fesmos.ru/netcat_files/userfiles/Sammelband-Text-Fertig.pdf
San Peterburg 2015
In: ФЕД
ФОНД ИМ. ФРИДРИХА ЭБЕРТА В РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ/FRIEDRICH EBERT STIFTUNG
ТРАНСГРАНИЧНЫЕ ВЫЗОВЫ НАЦИОНАЛЬНОМУ ГОСУДАРСТВУ/CROSS-BORDER CHALLENGES TO THE NATION-STATE
http://www.fesmos.ru/netcat_files/userfiles/Sammelband-Text-Fertig.pdf
San Peterburg 2015
Tuesday, February 24, 2015
Una corte o una coorte?
[pubblicato in versione più breve da Osservatorio Balcani e Caucaso, 24/02/2015, http://www.balcanicaucaso.org/aree/Russia/Russia-lo-stato-profondo-159093]
Il Cremlino è sempre stato una fonte
inesauribile di speculazioni. Di chi si circonda il presidente, perché, cosa si
può dedurre dal protocollo e dai rituali sociali che traspaiono in pubblico,
chi scende e chi sale e che cosa ci si deve aspettare da questi cambiamenti?
Il dibattito, in breve
Dall’inizio del conflitto in Ucraina la
questione di chi ha in mano il processo decisionale è stata dibattuta
intensamente. La diagnosi più condivisa, da osservatori dentro e fuori la Russia è che il numero di
chi ha diretto accesso al presidente si sia ristretto e abbia assunto una
maggiore compattezza negli orientamenti espressi.
Parla di un “Collettivo Putin in
riduzione” Radio Free/Europe in un podcast di The Power Vertical, (https://player.fm/series/the-power-vertical-radio-free-europe-radio-liberty/podcast-the-shrinking-collective-putin-january-30-2015)
, di uno scivolamento su posizioni più radicali The Institute for Modern Russia
(http://www.imrussia.org/en/analysis/world/2041-are-the-kremlin-hardl), mentre
osservatori russi si sono concentrati con maggiore attenzione sullo strumento
istituzionale che li raccoglierebbe: il Consiglio di Sicurezza Nazionale. A
parte il dibattito legato alla contingenza, un gran numero di studi si sono
concentrati alla ricostruzione dei processi decisionali al Cremlino, alla sua
catena di comando, alle sue caratteristiche ed efficacia (fra gli altri si
segnala State Building in Putin's Russia: Policing and Coercion after
Communism http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/politics-international-relations/comparative-politics/state-building-putins-russia-policing-and-coercion-after-communism,
non aggiornato all’ultimo mandato, ma molto ben documentato).
La metodologia di analisi varia da
contributo a contributo, e si va da ricostruzioni giornalistiche espressione di
posizioni di esperti e giornalisti a studi statistici frutto di ricerche più
approfondite. Ma la diagnosi pare condivisa: fin dal secondo mandato di Putin
la corte del Cremlino si stava assestando su una maggiore omogeneità interna e
– a cascata – sull’intero quadro istituzionale del paese. La corte mista di
tanti boiari con le proprie agende e la varietà della propria origine diventa
sempre di più una coorte.
Il mito dell’Uomo Forte
Il mito dell’Uomo Forte serve prima di
tutto all’uomo forte. Il messaggio è che solo l’uomo forte può dirigere lo
Stato e la sua saggezza e la sua autorevolezza garantiscono il buon governo.
Senza di lui solo il caos. Questa idea affascina molti elettori, un po’ ovunque
peraltro, che mirano il leader sgridare come scolaretti imprenditori (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UMlsbB33QSc),
ministri (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mu1Be9W3h0I
) o chiunque sgarri per volontà o
incapacità. Per dirla con W. E. Halal è un tipo di leadership autocratica,
tipica di società primitive e idonea a fasi di guerra, e che si oppone a forme
di leadership quali quelle partecipativa o di autonomia, in cui il ruolo del
leader è di incoraggiare uno staff verso una missione, non con il controllo ma
con la condivisione di responsabilità e di potere decisionale, e che sono più
tipiche di società evoluta e sofisticata (http://home.gwu.edu/~halal/Articles/Leaders_Who_Listen.pdf
). Certo la prima attrae di più circoli conservatori, cultori del controllo
come principale strumento di stabilità sociale. Il che porta direttamente al
profilo professionale che caratterizza l’attuale leadership russa.
I “suoi uomini”
Il mito dell’Uomo Forte è anche appunto
un mito, soprattutto quando si parla di sistemi complessi come gli stati, non
di gruppi umani di poche decine di persone. Nello Stato chi riveste la massima
carica, de jure o de facto, ha sempre un gruppo di persone
intorno con i quali crea rapporti di interdipendenza, non esclusivamente di
comando, i “suoi uomini”. Nel caso della Russia l’espressione è particolarmente
azzeccata, perché si tratta di un gruppo ristretto di uomini con un passato o
un presente in divisa. Unica eccezione, per chi estende il nocciolo duro a
tutti i membri del Consiglio di Sicurezza, Valentina Matviyienko, di origini
ucraine, che presiede il Consiglio Federale, e quindi ha un seggio permanente
all’interno del Consiglio di Sicurezza.
Ma pur nella rilevanza quest’organismo
forse non è proiezione esatta della coorte putiniana, per qualche nome di
troppo, per esempio il Ministro degli Esteri Sergey Lavrov, e qualche mancanza
troppo illustre, come Igor Sechin, a capo di Rosneft.
L’insieme di intersezione di vari metodi
per identificare il gruppo di governo si restringe a pochi nomi, molti dei
quali risiedono nei così detti ministeri forti: gli Interni, la Sicurezza Federale
(FSB), la Procura Generale
(http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477847/procuracy
), e – forse appena più periferico – la Difesa, i famosi Siloviki. Quindi l’elenco a
livello apicale si riduce a pochi nomi:
- Nikolaj Patrushev, ex capo della FSB,
attualmente presiede il Consiglio di Sicurezza nazionale (CSN). Nel KGB di
Pietroburgo dove si è formato Putin (anni 1975-1984). Ha rilasciato interviste
da cui traspare la sua linea dura in tema di autonomia della società civile, e
in cui si è espresso a favore dell’utilizzo del nucleare anche in conflitti
regionali. A lui è legato un altro silovik, Rashid Nurgaliev, KGB della
Carelia, ex Ministro degli Interni, ora suo vice. E’ ancora del suo entourage
Boris Gryzlov, alla Duma per Russia Unita e nel CSN. Il figlio di Patrushev ha
invece ottenuto il posto di Advisor di Sechin.
- Vladimir Ustinov, a cui si arriva
anche via Sechin, visto che sono consuoceri. Ex procuratore generale, Ministro
della Giustizia, e poi Plenipotenziaro per il Distretto Federale Meridionale.
Conosciuto da Putin nel suo primo periodo moscovita, quello che ha preceduto i
suoi incarichi federali (1996-1999).
- Sergey Ivanov, sempre del KGB di
Pietroburgo, a capo dell’amministrazione presidenziale;
Ci sono i due Ministri, degli Interni
Vladimir Kolokolcev, e della Difesa Sergey Shoigu, che non rientrano nel gruppo
delle conoscenze storiche di Putin, ma che per incarico e per divisa, nel
gruppo dei siloviki. Come è una aggiunta relativamente recente, Aleksander
Bortnikov, il nuovo capo delle FSB, pure KGB/FSB di Pietroburgo dal 1975 al
2004, ma più vicino a Medvedev, originariamente.
Oltre ai siloviki, gli uomini in
[ex]divisa della politica, ci sono i “silovarchi” (http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/polisci/faculty/treisman/Papers/siloct06.pdf),
i siloviki-oligarchi. Primo fra tutti Igor Sechin, del così detto KGB Angola,
dove aveva prestato servizio. Ma l’incontro con Putin e’ negli anni di
Pietroburgo ’91-’96. Sempre nel settore dell’energia, ma a Transneft, c’è
Nikolaj Tokarev, collega KGB negli anni della Germania est, come Sergey
Chermezov, CEO di RosTec.
Ci sono poi altri nel mondo del privato
o delle aziende statali o partecipate molto vicini al presidente: Jakushin, il
direttore delle Ferrovie e via dicendo, ma l’elenco, che dovrebbe allargarsi
agli influenti consiglieri presidenziali, si farebbe forse noioso.
Il patrimonialismo e i suoi rischi, in
salsa russa
Un elenco ridotto all’osso esclude
necessariamente i vari Batrykin, Cherkesov (compagni di scuola di Putin, poi
anche entrati nei ministeri forti), l’eterno Viktor Ivanov, del KGB di San
Pietroburgo, i Belyaninov o Zolotov, ripresi dagli anni del KGB nella Germania
dell’est (1985-1990), o negli anni nel governo di Pitroburgo, 1991-1996... Vari
pezzi di vita putiniana assurti a incarichi federali, con sorti e fortuna
differenti.
Il quadro che emerge è comunque chiaro:
una logica di fedeltà cementata da legami personali spesso di lunga data. In
questo, come in altri aspetti la
Russia pare un paese con una forte connotazione
patrimonialistica in cui la cosa pubblica viene amministrata come un bene
privato, e in cui si raggiunge un incarico non tanto per cosa che si
conosce, ma per chi si conosce. Un fenomeno certo non solo russo, ma che
per il profilo di chi governa ha avuto un effetto piuttosto particolare sul
paese: dal vertice agli organi di potere regionali ha preso forma una
“militocrazia” (http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2747/1060-586X.19.4.289#.VN-YVuaG_gw
). Per citare un esempio, dei sette distretti federali tutti hanno avuto a capo
almeno un “uomo in divisa”, che fosse militare, KGB, Procura. Il che ha fatto
sì che gli incaricati –a loro volta- aumentassero il numero delle divise nei
ranghi dell’amministrazione distrettuale.
Quando in riferimento al putinismo si
parla di specificità culturali russe, forse si sottovaluta come in qualsiasi
paese un sistema istituzionale di questo tipo, in cui che il controllo civile
sul braccio armato appare rovesciato a favore di quest’ultimo, porterebbe a
politiche analoghe a quelle russe attuali. Se cioè questioni sociali,
politiche, economiche, di relazioni internazionali non sarebbero analizzate
secondo il prisma della sicurezza e della risposta eventualmente armata, con
una militarizzazione del dibattito pubblico e uno squilibrio verso la repressione
e la coercizione.
Un altro rischio del patrimonialismo è
che la coorte, o chi la presiede, si accanisca a investire su un cavallo
perdente, perché lo ritiene “un suo uomo”, nonostante lo scarso consenso
popolare, magari attestato dalle urne, o la dubbia fama. Il caso Janukovich è
fin troppo chiaro, delfino caduto in rovina e riparato in Russia, ma mai più
ricevuto al Cremlino, nemmeno quando lo si riconosceva legittimo presidente in
esilio forzato.
Ma non solo Janukovich: in Abkhazia ci
sono volute varie crisi per alla fine riuscire a installare Khadjimba, che pure
aveva un passato elettorale molto debole, così come quello di Sergey Aksenov,
attuale primo ministro della Crimea. Solo l’alternanza da Putin a Medvedev era
riuscita a smuovere dalla sua poltrona l’altrettanto impopolare e nominato
Zyazikov dall’Ingushezia.
Legata a doppio filo con Putin c’è poi
l’anomalia nel sistema, Ramzan Kadyrov. Il giovanissimo (rispetto alla coorte
dei più o meno sessantenni) e ambiziosissimo presidente della Cecenia che dà
segno che il piccolo territorio non gli basti, che si senta sottodimensionato e
in grado di conquistare spazi maggiori. E lo fa sullo spazio virtuale, nella
sfera religiosa, e assicurandosi visibilità negli scenari internazionali,
incluso il teatro ucraino, e proponendo – recentemente- i suoi uomini a
protezione della difesa dello stato intero. Il profilo regionale cui i media
locali garantiscono la maggiore copertura si dichiara sottomesso non
all’ufficio della presidenza, ma personalmente a Putin.
Se ci fosse bisogno di ribadire i rischi
del personalismo quando si esercita il potere.
Monday, June 3, 2013
Secularism and Social Cohesion: the case of Georgia
Georgia is a relatively small country with a mixed population: the overwhelming majority of Georgians
belong to the Georgian Orthodox Church which has an important role in the Nation building of the
country, but there are some significant religious minorities. Some of them are settled in territories
which border with countries where they represent the majority, and Georgia has already suffered
from breakaway wars in the recent past.
Since its independence from the Soviet Union, there were episodes of religious intolerance. Albeit the
modernization which the country underwent in the last decade embedded an enforcement of secularism, up to recent days some case were still registered of intolerance and of the manipulation of
the religious sentiments for political purpose.
A sound secular and democratic order and a tolerant environment are the best protection for each and
all citizens of Georgia, and a matter of urgency after the ignominious events of 17th of May,
when antigay protesters led by Orthodox clergyviolently prevented an anti-homophobia rally from taking place
full analysis available at http://www.ispionline.it/sites/default/files/pubblicazioni/analysis_174_2013.pdf.pdf
.
Tuesday, March 5, 2013
A third way: democracy reloaded
From the
very beginning of its history, the debate about democracy focused on two
different models of democracy: direct democracy, where people vote on policy
initiatives directly, and representative democracy, where people elect their
representatives who will in their turn write and adopt laws.
The latter
model is the most common, for understandable reasons: the scale of states, in
terms of territory and demography, the complexity of governance,
rationalization of tasks, division of labour and so forth.
To be
legitimate, representative democracy needs some requisites to be met: citizens
should indeed vote, and representatives should be perceived as such, that is
to say someone who stands for the voters.
The
post-electoral crisis in Armenia
looks like a crisis of representative democracy. The ongoing mobilization seems
something more than a low peak of consensus against a single political leader,
the incumbent and confirmed President Serzh Sargsyan: it is a rejection of a
system which is lived with a peaceful but stubborn hostility.
First of
all, the issue of electoral results: the opposition claims that the electoral
fraud machine has completely falsified the results. Some forms of electoral
fraud are not that immediate to be tracked, like vote buying, so further
investigations should be carried on. But even if the claims are baseless, maths
speaks: allegedly 58%, turnout 60%. Sargsyan has been voted – in the best
scenario – by less than 35% of voters. A weak legitimacy, indeed.
On the
other hand opposition. Oppositions. Republic Squares in Yerevan. Squares in Armenia.
Observers
are puzzled, some forces of the Armenian opposition are cautious. The point is
that Raffi Hovanissian is playing a crucial role in fostering a civil
awakening, but he is not promoting a color revolution.
He is not
just proposing to be the replacement of the current president, a well known
pattern, but he is asking. He is asking the President he does not recognize as
legitimate to give back power to people, he is asking people what they want.
In line
with the approach he has been cultivating for ages with his sympathizers, he is
collecting opinions and suggestions; he is proposing his line and submitting it
to those who believe he is worthy to be listened.
In a way,
he is proposing himself as a coordinator of a direct democracy.
It is an
interesting, albeit it is still not clear how hopeful, variant: a third way.
And wherever it is leading to, this chance to shake a system - which has
clearly a thorny issue of legitimacy to handle - should not be missed.
Some
progressive countries have opened the floor to people empowerment and shared
responsibilities in the decision making process. Armenia is not among them. This
episode, this post-election crisis, is food for thought: apathy is not paying
back, Armenian crisis is worsening, demographic hemorrhage tells it all. Representative
democracies came to life in the pre- compulsory schooling and pre-IT era. They
can be accommodated in order to be more inclusive and more open, in view of
reduction of public frustration and tensions.
Let’s keep
eyes and minds wide open on the “third way”. Raffi Hovanissian is not the kind
of person to give up or to be easily co-opted. And a repression tout court now
would be awful costs in terms of international and domestic legitimacy. So let’
see if and how there is a path to progress, if Armenia is receptive to a peaceful people empowerment and ready to implement new processes to make it possible.
Sunday, February 10, 2013
Armenia on the eve of elections: foreign policy
Armenia is located in a hostile regional context. On the eve of the presidential
election, it’s worthy to look back at Armenia five years ago and now.
Armenian Security 2013 is even more precarious than in 2008.
A few months after his
troubled inauguration at the presidency Serzh Sargsyan
found himself confronted with the least desirable scenario: the
country on which Armenia is dependent
for most of its imports at war against
its key ally: in August 2008, the war broke out between Georgia
and its breakaway regions backed by Russia. As a consequence,
Russo-Georgian borders were closed. Surely
if the Armenian diplomacy
in the last past five years scored a success it is the
reopening of the crossing point of
Verkhnij-Lars in
2010, that actually had been closed before the war,
in 2006. The opening - obtained by Armenian
and Swiss mediation - marked one of the rare moments of post-war detente and ensured an almost continuous
transit of goods and people to and from
Armenia.
The unresolved issue of Nagorno Karabakh
On the other hand, the main regional issue for Armenia is for sure not what’s going on in its North West. The major crisis is represented by the protracted conflict with Azerbaijan over Nagorno Karabakh. Because of conflict, the borders are closed with both Azerbaijan and Turkey, the country is permanently under threat, its perception of safety and quality of political debate are far under their potential developments.
Public opinion is strongly radicalized on the issue. Armenians have emerged victorious from the war, and so its willingness to compromise - the only way to a peaceful resolution of the dispute around Nagorno-Karabakh - is very limited, if not absent. Any politician who would dare to pace the path of compromise should be ready to take very unpopular steps.
On the other hand, the main regional issue for Armenia is for sure not what’s going on in its North West. The major crisis is represented by the protracted conflict with Azerbaijan over Nagorno Karabakh. Because of conflict, the borders are closed with both Azerbaijan and Turkey, the country is permanently under threat, its perception of safety and quality of political debate are far under their potential developments.
Public opinion is strongly radicalized on the issue. Armenians have emerged victorious from the war, and so its willingness to compromise - the only way to a peaceful resolution of the dispute around Nagorno-Karabakh - is very limited, if not absent. Any politician who would dare to pace the path of compromise should be ready to take very unpopular steps.
It is therefore
understandable that at the very beginning of his mandate, after the unrests that had marked his inauguration, Sargsyan was very cautious.
However as his mandate strengthened and his
presidency consolidated, he could have tried to take advantage of a number of
benefits he enjoys, compared to other politicians. Firstly,
Sargsyan is a Karabakhi.
Then, he took part in the war. Last but not least, he was a man of the
institutions, in Karabakh,
having held key positions in the defense sector. Therefore he’s the kind
of politician whose faith in the
Karabakhi cause can
not be questioned, a person who has a wider
margin of action. He has strong links in and with Karabakh,
including its social network. He’s one of the few who
could have tabled some pragmatic issues, such as the one of the “security
belt”, those regions surrounding Karabakh
that are occupied primarily for strategic reasons, but which are less connected with the
territorialisation of identity and are
less perceived as historical Armenian lands.
Now an open debate about these lands sounds futuristic, but until 2010 it could have been at least discussed.
Now an open debate about these lands sounds futuristic, but until 2010 it could have been at least discussed.
Since
2010 violations
of the ceasefire are reported on daily basis, including
along the borders between Armenia and Azerbaijan. Alongside
this gradual thawing of the conflict there has been a resurgence of the war rhetoric on both sides. Negotiations continue both within the Minsk Group, and
upon the initiatives of the Russian presidency, the latter being clearly
concerned about a possible eruption of a war in the Caucasus
before/during Sochi Olympic Games. But the results
are disappointing.
On
the occasion of the recent celebration of the twenty-first
anniversary of the Armenian Army
Sargsyan noted that Armenia will not be the one to declare war (http://www.president.am/en/press-release/item/2013/01/28/Congratulatory-Message-by-President-Serzh-Sargsyan-on-the-occasion-of-Army-Day/). Still, especially in 2012, the President has
repeatedly stated that the country
will be ready, in case of attack.
The times of the Joint Declaration, signed immediately after the war in Georgia when
images of bombings were still vivid, seem gone forever. From
crisis to crisis, the mediation over the past five
years had to regress from the topic of a
peaceful solution to the one of conflict
prevention.
The
Turkish front
Also with regard to relations with Turkey the last five years are a missed chance. The increasingly maximalist positions of the Erdoğan Government in foreign policy haven’t certainly facilitated a dialogue. However, they were chances which were not optimized. The year 2009, with the Protocols and the football diplomacy, looks like a century ago.
The reconciliation is stalling after the crisis of the ratification of the protocols, and no new channels, perhaps less ambitious, are being opened.
Also with regard to relations with Turkey the last five years are a missed chance. The increasingly maximalist positions of the Erdoğan Government in foreign policy haven’t certainly facilitated a dialogue. However, they were chances which were not optimized. The year 2009, with the Protocols and the football diplomacy, looks like a century ago.
The reconciliation is stalling after the crisis of the ratification of the protocols, and no new channels, perhaps less ambitious, are being opened.
While the debate surrounding the G-word progresses in
Turkey, undoubtedly, although more in connection
with a domestic need for a serene historical
memory, the proximity to the Armenian
cause and the debates of civilization
and democracy associated with as they
emerged when Hrant Dink was killed (http :/ / www.youtube.com/watch?v=2e2klbl-nfA)
collide with a growing nationalism. This becomes particularly visible, in terms of
anti-Armenian attitudes, on the anniversary of the
controversial massacre of Khojali..
In 2012, the year of the twentieth
anniversary of the massacre, Istanbul hosted a Turkish-Azerbaijani commemoration with a significant
number of participants (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RuTsgygwZrI).
In such a difficult regional context, lost opportunities weigh significantly. And that’s – with shared responsibility of all the parties involved - what seems to have happened in the last five years.
In such a difficult regional context, lost opportunities weigh significantly. And that’s – with shared responsibility of all the parties involved - what seems to have happened in the last five years.
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